Friday, 29 July 2016

Mughal Emperors – Story of 15 Mughal Kings of India

Mughal Emperors like Babur, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan have ranked the Mughal Empire into the list of very few great empires of India. Following list is giving an insight into the reign of all 15 Mughal Emperors.

Mughal Emperors (AD 1526-1707)

Babur (AD 1526-1530)

  • Founder of Mughal Empire, who introduced gunpowder in India; defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat (AD 1526); Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh) at Battle of Khanwa (AD 1527) and Medini Rai of Chanderi at Battle of Chanderu (AD 1528) and Mahmud Lodhi at Battle of Ghahra (AD 15629); he wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turkish language. Babur declared Jehad and adopted the title Ghazi.
  • Died in 1530 and was buried at Aram Bagh (Agra). Later his body was taken to Aryan Bagh (Kabul).

Humayun (AD 1530-1556)

  • Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
  • Sher Shah Suri gradually gained power who fought two battles with Humayun, are Battle of Chausa (AD 1539) and another Battle of Kannauj (AD 1540) culminating into Humayun’s defeat. Passed 15 years in exile; again invaded Indian in 1555 with the help of his officer Bairam Khan. Died in AD 1556 due to a fall from his library building’s stairs; Gulbadan Begum, Humayun’s half-sister wrote Humayun-nama.

Akbar (AD 1556-1605)

  • Coroneted at the young age of 14 by Bairam Khan; defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (AD 1556) with the help of Bairam Khan; conquered Malwa (AD 1561) defeatingBaz Bahadur followed by Garh-Katanga (ruled by Rani Durgawati), Chittor (AD 1568), Ranthambhor and Kalinjar (AD 1569), Gujarat (AD 1572), Mewar (Battle of Haldighati, AD 1576 Akbar and Rana Pratap), Kashmir (AD 1586), Sindh (AD 1593) and Asirgarh (AD 1603).
  • Buland Darwaza was constructed at Fatehpur Sikri after Gujarat victory in AD 1572.
  • Married to Harkha Bai, daughter of Rajput ruler Bharmal.
  • He is known as greatest among Mughal Emperors.

Jahangir (AD 1605-1627)

  • Executed the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev.
  • Greatest failure was loss of Kandahar to Persia in AD 1622.
  • Married Mehr-un-Nisa in AD 1611 and conferred the title of Nurjahan on her; had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra (called Zanzir-i-Adil).
  • Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe visited his court.
  • Famous painters in his court-Abdul Hassan, Ustad Mansur and Bishandas.

Shahjahan (AD 1628-1658)

  • Annexed Ahmadnagar while Bijapur and Golconda accepted his over lord-ship. Secured Kandahar (AD 1639),
  • Two Frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier and an Italian adventurer Manucci visited his court;
  • Built Moti Masjid and Taj Mahal at Agra, Jama Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi; his reign is considered the Golden Age of the Mughal Empire.

Aurangzeb Alamgir (AD 1658-1707)

  • Aurangzeb became victorious after the brutal war of succession among his brother Dara, Shuja and Murad.
  • Rebellions during his rule-Jat Peasantry at Mathura, Satnami peasantry in Punjab and Bundelas in Bundelkhand. Ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur executed in AD 1675.
  • He was called ‘Darvesh’ or a ‘Zinda Pir’. He forbade
  • He built Biwi ka Makbara on the tomb of his queen Rabaud-Durani at Aurangabad; Moti Masjid within Red Fort, Delhi; and the Jami or Badshahi mosque at Lahore.

Later Mughal Emperors

  • Bahadur Saha – I (1707-1712) – Original name was Muazzam; Title-Shah Alam – I
  • Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) – He ascended the throne with the help of Zulfikar Khan; abolished Jaziya.
  • Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
  • Muhammas Shah (1719-1748) – Nadir Shah invaded India and took away Peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond.
  • Ahmed Shah (1748-1754) – Ahmad Shah Abdali (General of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi and the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.
  • Alamgir (1754-1759) – Ahmad Shah occupied Delhi. Later, Delhi was plundered by Marathas.
  • Shah Alam -II (1759-1806) – Could not enter Delhi for 12 years.
  • Akbar – II (1806-1837) – Pensioner of East India Company.
  • Bahadur Shah – II (1837-1857) – He was last among Mughal Emperors who was made premier during the 1857 Revolt.
Also Read: Administrative Structure under the Mughals

Source:: ias.org

Ias.org:: Analysis of 13th EU-India Summit

13th EU-India Summit was held in March, 2016 in Brussels. Brussels is the capital of Belgium and is also having the headquarters of European Union. To attend this meeting with the President of European Council and the President of European Commission, our Prime MinisterNarendra Modi, traveled to Brussels.

European Council

European Union is a group of 28 European Countries. European council is most powerful body of European Union, Prime Ministers or Presidents of EU countries are members of European council. Current President of EU-Council is Donald Tusk, he is former Prime Minister of Holland. Tusk was elected as President on 1st December, 2014 for his two years term.

European Commission

Another body is European Commission, it is executive wing of European Union. Jean Cleude Juncker, former Prime Minister of Luxembourg is current President of European Commission.
  1. Broadbased Trade and Investment Agreement: There is no significant breakthrough observed in BTIA prespective druing the 13th EU-India Summit.
  2. EU-India Agenda for Action 2020: A Roadmap of EU-India Relationship for five years.
  3. EU-India Water Partnership: Environmental issues, Clean Ganga and Clean India Campaign
  4. EU-India Science and Tech Cooperation Agreement
  5. A Common Agenda on Migration and Mobility
  6. Loan Assistance to Lucknow Metro of 450 million Euro.

EU-India Relationship Issues

Before this summit, 12th EU-India Summit was held in 2012 in New Delhi. The gap of four years between two consecutive meetings itself shows the EU-India relation downhill shift.

Italian Marine Issue

Italian Marines opened a indiscriminate gun fire on Indian fishermen resulted in death to two. this incident became a major cause of roughness in India-EU relations.  Italy has taken this matter to UNCLOS for arbitration.
The issue is related to charges pressed against the Italian Marines, these charges can attract them death sentence which is the reason of  Our inability to resolve the issue has made it

Trade and Investment Agreement

India is in Strategic Partnership with European Union since 2004. India became sixth country to be strategic partner of EU after United States, Canada, Japan, China and Russia. Even now there are 10 strategic Partners of EU.
Strategic Partnership is a long term in nature. Earlier EU-India relationship was economic only. But after this, it has broadened into defense, foreign policy, international terrorism, strategic, political etc.
Trade between India and EU remains $ 98.5 billion during 2014-15, out of this figure our export was of $ 49.3 billion and import was of $ 49.2 billion. In this way we have a perfectly balanced trade relation. (With China our export is around 20b but import is around 60b, which is highly skewed.)
EU is a major contributor to our FDI, even India is investing in EU countries.
We agreed to eliminate tariff for more than 90 percent items. But the problem is rest of 10 percent –
  • India wants EU to offer reduced tariff on 95 percent items.
  • EU wants India to offer reduced tariff on 98 percent items.
EU wants India to reduce tariff on Imported Cars, Wine and Spirits, Dairy Products. EU is also interested in IPR Standards  in India. Specially on the issue related to Evergreening of Drug Patents. In the Evergreening of Patents we have serious difference in opinion. EU members also want us to make improved Environmental and Labour Standards and incorporate it in the agreement. (Drug patents are generally given for 20 years, but drugs makers by making some non-effective changes in composition try to evergreen their patents.)
Indian demand is more related to service sector like, free movement of human capital (labour), Data Secure Status for India, Export of Spirits (made of molasses), freedom to export generic drugs, FDI in multi-brand retail.

Advantage of Trade and Investment Agreement

  1. Both India and EU economies are complimentary in nature with less overlapping.
  2. The share of India-EU bilateral trade is 1.5 percent of EU’s external trade.
India’s bilateral trade with EU is currently 20-21 percent of India’s total external trade.
1990       :- 40 percent of India’s external trade
2010       :- 25 percent of India’s external trade
2015-16  :- 20 – 21 percent of India’s external trade
3. India has surplus manpower, EU is requiring services from India.
4. Agriculture: India and EU both opposed any further liberalization in Agricultural Sector in Doha Round of WTO. European agriculture is highly subsidized; India is afraid of getting flooded by foreign agri products  as Indian agri is subsistence agriculture. So, both of us India, and EU is on same page in this regard.
5. FDI from EU will increase by at least 30% which will be a boost for India.
Signing of this agreement is not going to be an easy affair as there are 28 countries (parties).

New Developments – BREXIT

British is planning to exit from EU, for this a referendum is going to be held in June. This is going to make EU further weak as it already suffered from Greek Crisis, Refugee Crisis. Thus it is definitely going to be a tough negotiation in future too, as we can not expect much concession.
India and Europe are having similar multicultural diversity, both are victim of terrorism and struggling to integrate their stakeholders. India and EU both are on same page as far as issue of Afghanistan and Pakistan sponsored terrorism is concerned.
It will be interesting to watch further development of relation between India and EU, both of us are expecting a more talks and meetings to resolve contentions.

Monday, 25 July 2016

Cultural Achievements of Akbar

When Akbar inherited the throne, the empire was unstable and he had to face many difficulties. However, through conquests and his wise and visionary policies, he not only established a vast empire but also consolidated it.
Akbar, realizing that integration and harmony could be brought about in his kingdom not merely through political unification but through religious and social unity, tried to establish the concept of Sulh-Kul by demonstrating many personal examples. He put a tilak on his forehead and adopted Hindu practices such as Tuladan and Jharokha Darshan. Similarly, it was during Akbar’s reign that clothes such as Achkan, Sherwani gained popularity among the people. He even got some success in his attempt to check social evils like child marriage that still becomes news in our modern society. Akbar is very much known for his cultural achievements. The term ‘culture’ includes in itself the fields of literaturehistorical works art and architecture.

Literature during Akbar’s Reign

Although Akbar was himself an illiterate, he used to patronize scholars, poets, and historians. According to some historians, the reign of Akbar was a period of renaissance in the medieval history as he earnestly encouraged literature. During this period, rich literature was produced in Persian, Hindi, and local languages. And not only this, works of Sanskrit literature of great repute were also translated into Persian and Turki. Abul Fazal’s letters mentioned as original compositions. These letters are  known as Insha-i-Abul Fazal. Even a person like Aurangzeb, a staunch critic of Abul Fazal, praised the style of his letters.
Poetry, at that time, had got a prominent place in Persian literature because it provided the best way to express the love of nature and beauty. As Akbar provided an earnest patronage to poetry, many Indians and foreigners flocked to his court. The Ain-i-Akbari has registered the names of 59 top most Persian poets who enjoyed the patronage of Akbar. Among them, some famous names are Ghizali, Faizi, Muhammad Hussain and Sayyid Jamaluddin-Urfi.

Historical works during Akbar’s reign

As Akbar had an excessive love for history, he imparted patronage to historians. Among the notable historical works produced during his reign were: Abul Fazal’s Ain-i-Akbari andAkbarnama which throw much light on Akbar’s administrations and traditions. Badayuni’sMuntakhab-ul-Twarikh has its own importance as an important source of information for the view of the opposition because Badayuni was a great critic of Akbar’s religious policy. Nizam-ud-din Ahmad’s Tabat-i-Akbari provides a detailed description of Akbar’s conquest.
In order to fulfill his wish to bridge the gap between the non-Muslims and Muslims, Akbar got translated many literary works of different languages. For this, he created a separate Department of Translation that was placed under the charge of great scholars, of his court, likeAbdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Bandayuni, Abul Fazal, Faizi.
Many outstanding Sanskrit works such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda ,Leelawati (a Sanskrit work on Mathematics), the Rajatarangini and Harivansh Purana was translated in Persian. And not only this, Abul Fazal translated Panch Tantra and Faizi translatedNala-Damayanti into Persian. Babur’s autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi  was also translated from Turiki to Persian during Akbar’s reign.
For Hindi literature also Akbar’s reign proved to be a golden period. Many high officials of his court were notable poets and writers; among them the names of Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Birbal, Raja Todarmal and Raja Man Singh are prominent. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana’s dohasare popular even today.
Another eminent poet of Akbar’s time was the great Sant Tulsidas of the Ramcharitmanas fame. Another important poet of his age was the famous Surdas who wrote Sursagar in Brijbhasa.  As Surdas was a devotee of Krishna, his Sursagar describes Krishna’s childhood activities as well as his love for Radha.
Don’t Miss: Ancient India
Krishna’s other devotee-poets who made their names during the Akbar’s reign were Nand Das, Vithal Nath, Parm Nand Das, Raskhan, Meera etc. Raskhan, a Muslim and a devotee of Krishna, wrote Prem Vatika in praise of Krishna. Keshav Das was another well-known poet of this period whose well-known works include Kavi Priya, Ram Chandrika and Rasik Priya.

Architecture During Akbar’s Reign

As there was prosperity during his reign Akbar took the special interest in erecting buildings. It was the outcome of his untiring efforts that the two prevailing Hindu and Persian styles of architecture got blended and took the form of a new style of architecture which adopted, on the one hand, domes, minerates and arches from Persian style and on the other hand endorsed decoration techniques from the Hindu architecture.
The architectural beauty of Akbar’s period can be seen and relished in the buildings of his new capital Fatehpur Sikri. Its main buildings comprise Diwan-i- Aam, Diwan-i-Khas Panch Mahal, Jodhabai’s Mahal, Birbal’s Mahal, Library and the Buland Darwaza. Here one can also see Sheikh Salim Chisti’s Dargah that was built by Akbar.
It was Akbar who initiated the construction of his mausoleum at Agra, but its construction was completed by his son Jahangir. This mausoleum is considered as the best example of the architecture of Akbar’s time. It can be assessed that the buildings and Temples constructed during the reign of Akbar had a great impact on the Mughal architecture as a whole.

Painting during Akbar reign

During the reign of Akbar both styles of paintings-Persian and Indian-blended and took the form of Mughal style. The evolution of painting was shown in Turkish-i-khandan-e-Taimuyia andAkbari nama.
With an intention to promote painting Akbar formed a separate department of painting under the charge of Khawaja Abdus Samad. Akbar followed the policy of appointing painters of Calibre irrespective of their caste or creed. His court had both Indian and foreign painters. Painters of great repute of Akbar’s time were Farukh Beg, Sayyid Ali etc.

Source:: ias.org

Sunday, 24 July 2016

Physical features of India – physiographic units

Name the physiographic units of India and briefly explain their formation.

I.Introduction: The Indian subcontinent is characterized by the diversified physical features. They exhibit striking contrasts in structure, altitude, climate etc.
II. Physiographic divisions: Physical features of India may be divided into four physiographic units.
They are
1. The Himalayas and their associated mountain range.
2. The Indo-Gangetic plains
3. The peninsular plateau.
4. The coastal plains.


1. Formation of the Himalayas: 
a. According to the Geologists, during Mesozoic times, the entire Himalayan area was occupied by a great Geosyncline called “Tethys sea”.
b. Angaraland was the land mass to the North of Tethys Sea. Gondwana land which contained the present peninsula was to the south of the Tethys Sea.
c. In the course of time, these two land masses split up and began to move apart.
d. Then the weaker Tethys Sea got compressed and buckled up.
e. After some million years due to immense compressional forces, the sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea were folded to acquire the present form of Himalayan Mountains.
2. Formation of Indo Gangetic plains: 
a. In the wake of the Himalayan uplift, a ‘fore deep’ was formed in the intervening space between the peninsular plateau and the Himalayan Mountains.
b. Then an immense amount of Alluvium was deposited in this depression by the Himalayan Rivers. Thus, it became the largest alluvial plain in the world.
3. Formation of peninsular Plateau: 
a. According to Geologists, it was a part of The Gondwana land.
b. It was a block of old crystal rocks lifted above the sea level in the pre-Cambrian times, and never submerged again.
4. Formation of coastal plains: Were formed by the peninsular rivers.

 Physical Features of India

What are the parallel ranges of the Himalayas? Explain.

I. Introduction: The Himalayas form India’s northern frontier from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh with a distance of 2400 km and a width of 500 km.
II. Kinds of parallel ranges of Himalayas: The Himalayas comprise three parallel ranges with deep valleys and extensive plateaus. They are:
1. The Himadri (The greater the Himalayas)
2. The Himachal or lesser the Himalayas
3. The Siwaliks or outer the Himalayas
The Himadri or Greater Himalayas: 
a. This is the highest loftiest and most continuous range with an average elevation of about 6100 mts.
b. It has the world’s highest and prominent peaks such as Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga etc.
c. It is formidable and snow bound through out the year and found with a number of glaciers.
d. It is mainly composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
The Himachal range: 
a. This is a most intricate and rugged mountain system.
b. It is to the south of the Himadri range with an altitude of 1000- 4500 mts.
c. Its width varies between 50 and 80 kms.
d. The most important and longest range in the Himachal is the Pir Pan Jal range of Kashmir.
e. Kashmir valley lies between Himadri and Pirpanjal range.
f. It has beautiful Kulu and Kangra valleys.
g. Many hill stations like Simla, Mussoorie, Nainital etc are situated in this range.


The Siwalikhs: 
a. It is the southern most range of the Himalayas.
b. It extends from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
c. The Siwaliks in Jammu region are called Jammu hills and in Arunachal Pradesh as Mishi hills.
d. The width of this range varies between 50 km in Himachal Pradesh and 15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
e. Its average height ranges from 600 to 1500 mts.
f. These are backed by The ‘Duns’ and are covered with thick tropical deciduous forests.

Describe the importance of Himalayas.

A. I. Introduction: The Himalayas form India’s northern frontier from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh covering a distance of about 2400 km and with a width of 200 to 500 km.
II. Importance of the Himalayas:
Barriers: The Himalayas act like barriers protecting the great plains of India from the cold winds of central Asia during winter. They also acted as impenetrable borders protecting the country from foreign invasions
Cause rains: The Himalayas are responsible for causing rainfall in the plains during summer and ultimately to have a monsoon type of climate in the country.
The Perennial flow of water: Rivers originate in the glaciers of these mountains and cause the perennial flow of water. These lives contributed to the economic development of the Great Plains.
Scenic beauty: The Himalayas are known for beautiful valleys like Kashmir Kulu, Kangra etc and hill stations. These valleys and hill stations attract tourist from all over the world and earn foreign exchange for the country.
Horticulture: Himalayan valleys are known for the cultivation of fruits like Apples.
Vegetation: Alphine vegetation is an important contribution to the forest economy.
The gaps in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas called passes- like Khyber, Bolan, permitted a great exchange of culture and commerce with neighbouring countries.
III. Conclusion: Thus, there are many advantages of the Himalayas to India.

What is a pass? Give examples.

1. The gaps in the Himalayan mountain ranges which provide natural routes across them are called passes.
2. The important passes in the Himalayan mountain ranges are Khyber, Bolan, Karakoram, Nathula, and Bomidila etc.

What is a ‘DUN’? Give examples from the Himalayan region.

1. The Siwalik Mountains are backed by a discontinued series of narrow longitudinal flat-bottomed strike valleys. These valleys are called as ‘Duns’
2. Dehra Dun and Patli Dun in Uttaranchal and Kotli Dun in Jammu are the examples of prominent “Dun Valleys”.


Name the important peaks of Himalayas. 

The Himadri range has world’s highest and prominent peaks. The Important peaks of The Himalayas are
1. Mt. Everest (8848 mts)
2. Kanchenjunga (8598 mts)
3. Makalu(8481 mts)
4. Dhaulagiri (8177 mts)
5. Manaslu (8156 mts)
6. Chooyu (8153 mts)
7. Nanga Prabhath ( 8126 mts)
8. Annapurna (8078 mts)

What is a plain? Describe the surface differences recognized with the geomorphology of Great Plains. 

I. Introduction: The land surface is not the same everywhere. There are various land forms i.e. mountains, Plateaus, and plains.
II. Meaning of plain: The material eroded and transported by rivers is deposited at suitable places and thus, plains are formed. A fertile land with the level surface, gentle, slope and with heights far less than a plateau is called a plain.
III. Surface differences of Great plains: There are four important surface differences recognized with the Geomorphology of great plains. They are Babar, Terai, Bhanger, Khadar Babar: The Himalayan rives deposit gravel and unassorted sediments along the foot of the Siwaliks. This pebble-studded zone of porous beds is known as Babar. It forms a narrow belt, only 8 to 16 km width in the northern boundary of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh.
Terai : Many small Himalayan rivers flow underground through Bhabar zone and reemerge on the surface creating 15-30 kms wide marshy tract called ‘Terai’
Bhangar : the older alluvium of the floodplain is called Bhangar’.
Khadar : The never alluvium of the floodplain is called ‘Khadar’. This zone is found with excessive dampness with a thick growth of forest and a variety of wildlife.

Compare and contrast the geomorphologic features between Malwa plateau and Deccan Plateau.

A. Introduction: The peninsular plateau is one of the physiographic units of India. It is broadly divided into Malwa Plateau and Deccan Plateau. 
Malwa PlateauDeccan plateau
1. It is bounded by the Aravallis on the northwest and the vindhyas on the south.1. It is bounded by the satpura range on thenorth, western ghats on the west and eastern
2. Its extensions are known as Bundalkhand and Bhaghalkh and uplands in Uttar
Pradesh and in as Chota Nagpur plateau in
Jharkand.
2. Its extensions are Maharashtra Plateau onthe north and north west. Andhra plateau on
the south west and Karnataka plateau
on the south.
3. In its interior parts its surface isflat with isolated hillocks.3. Its table land consists of horizontallyarranged lava sheets
4. No Deltas are found here4. It has many deltas.
5. It occupies lesser area5. It occupies larger area.
6. It is not much suitable for cropcultivation.6. It is suitable for crop cultivation
7. It tilts towards the Gangetic plain.7. It tilts towards the east.
8. It has less elevation than theDeccan plateau.8. It has varied elevation from 900mts in the west to 300 mts on the east.

Distinguish the differences in physiography of Western ghats and Eastern ghats.

A. I. Introduction: Deccan plateau is bounded by the western ghats on the west and Eastern ghats on the east. East western ghats and Eastern ghats meet at Nilgiri hills. 
Western ghatsEastern ghats
1. They start from Khandesh in Maharastraand end at Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu.1. They start from the hills of ChotanagpurPlateau in Jharkhand and run upto Nilgiris
in Tamil Nadu.
2. They are to the western side of theDeccan Plateau.2. They are to the eastern side of theDeccan Plateau.
3. They are continuous chain of hills runningin a north-south with some gaps like palghat,
Thal ghat and Bhorghat gaps.
3. They are represented by irregularline of hills.
4. They are very close to the coast keepinga narrow coastal plain.4. They are far away from the coast keepingbroad coastal plain.
5. They have structural unity and awell defined lay out.5. They do not have any structural unityand a well defined lay out.
6. The northern part of western ghats is known as Sahyadri. Annamalai hills and cardamom hills arethe southern parts.6. They have local names are called as Simahachalam in Visakhapatnam, Papi Kondalu in Wast Godavari etc. Nallamalai in Kurnool, Pachamalai and in Tamil Nadu.
7. Anaimudi in Kerala the highest peak.7. The highest peak of Eastern ghats is found in chintapalli village of Vishakapatnam
8. There are dense forests.8. Forest all not that dense as that to western ghats.

Compare the coastal plains of east and west.

East coastal plainWest coastal plain
1. They stretch from Bengal to KanyaKumari.1. They strech from Rann of Kutch tokanyakumari.
2. They are wider and flat.2. They are narrow and uneven.
3. They are situated between TheEastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.3. They are situated between the westernGhats and the Arabian sea.
4. Well watered deltas are found.4. Long bars and lagoons are found.Deltas are not found.
5. Alluvial plains are formed by Mahanadi,Krishna, Godavari and Cauvery rivers.5. Alluvial plains are formed by Narmada,Tapti, Sabarmati and Mahi rivers. These plains
are found to the north of west
coastal plains.
6. Irrigational facilities are well developed.6. This region has less developedirrigational facilities.

Facts File:

The Himalayas are the young folded mountains.
The Himalayas were once occupied by the sea Tethys.
The Himalayas form India’s northern frontier from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.
The longitudinal extent of Himalayas is 5 lakh sq.km.
Greater Himalayas are also known as The Himadri.
K2 mountain peak is in Trans-Himalayan zone.
The highest mountain peak of The Himalayas in India is Kanchanjunga.
Pamir plateau is located in Trans-Himalayan zone.
The longitudinal extent of The great plains in India is 7 lakhs sq.km
The younger Alluvium is known as Khader.
Terai is a wide marshy track.
Bundelkhand upland is an extension of Malwa plateau.
Peninsular plateau is slightly tilting towards The east.
The highest peak in peninsular plateau is Annaimudi.
The Deccan plateau is bounded on north by sathpura range.
Narmada river flows through a rift valley.
Alakananda and Bhagirathi head streams formed the main stream of ganga.
The world’s highest and prominent peaks are found in Himadri range.
The most important Himachal range is Himachal.
South-west world extension of pirpanjal is called Dhaula Dhar range.
The world’s second highest peak is K2.
The longest glacier is Siachin.
The world’s highest table land is Pamir plateau.
Luni basin is found in Rajasthan plain.
Guru sikhar peak is situated in the Aravalli hills.
The important summer resort in M.P is pachmarhi.
The highest peak of the Nigiris is Doda betta.
The Ganga enters Bangladesh and then it is called Padma
The largest peninsular rivers Godavari.

Godavari joins Bay of Bengal near Rajamundary in A.P
AB
1. Manasarover2. older alluvium
3. Marshy tract
4. Pirpanjal range
5. West flowing river
a. Brahmaputrab. Bhanger
c. Terai
d. Himachal
e. Tapti